In the Middle Ages, wine (and later, alcohol) was the primary antiseptic; but plants, roots, and herbs were also researched by monks for the treatment of various ailments. Alchemists took this research further. Records point to Arnold of Villanova, a Catalan scholar born around 1240, as the inventor of "modern tinctures in which the virtues of herbs are extracted by alcohol." With his disciple Raymond Llull, he was the first to write a treatise on alcohol and publish recipes for curative liqueurs. Lemon, rose, and orange blossom were mixed with sugar alcohol. There is evidence of the addition of gold nuggets to the mixtures, considered panaceas (remedies for all ills). When the Black Death spread across Europe in the 14th century, liqueurs combined with herbal balms and tonics became prized medicines. In addition to wine brandy, other alcohols, such as rum, were used to make liqueurs. The domestic production of liqueurs and their use in cooking and confectionery was common. During the 19th century, the distilling industry grew. Many varieties of liqueurs appeared on the market, and homemade liqueurs began to disappear. The Italians refined their liqueur production. Queen Catherine de Medici, on a visit to Italy, brought some recipes back to France. Louis XIV, a connoisseur of the drink, delighted in a liqueur made with amber, aniseed, cinnamon, and musk.