In the Middle Ages, wine (and later alcohol) was the main antiseptic; but plants, roots and herbs were researched by monks for the treatment of various diseases. Alchemists took this research further. Records point to Arnold of Villanova, a Catalan scholar born around 1240, as the inventor of "modern tinctures in which the virtues of herbs are extracted by alcohol". With his disciple Raymond Llull, he was the first to write a treatise on alcohol and publish recipes for curative liqueurs. Lemon, rose and orange blossom were mixed with sugar alcohol. There is evidence that gold nuggets were added to the mixtures, considered panaceas (remedies for all ills). When the Black Death spread across Europe in the 14th century, liqueurs associated with herbal balms and tonics became precious medicines. In addition to wine brandy, other alcohols were used to make liqueurs, such as rum. It was common to make liqueurs at home and use them in cooking and confectionery. During the 19th century, the distilling industry grew. Many varieties of liqueurs appeared on the market, and homemade liqueurs began to disappear. The Italians became more sophisticated in the production of liqueurs. Queen Catherine de Medici, on a visit to Italy, took some recipes back to France. Louis XIV, a connoisseur of the drink, enjoyed a liqueur made with amber and aniseed, cinnamon and musk.